The Norwegian Civil War Era (1130–1240)

Pope Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear)

Pope Adrian IV (born Nicholas Breakspear, c. 1100 – 1 September 1159) served as head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from December 1154 until his death. He remains the only pope born in England and the first pontiff from the English-speaking world. His reign unfolded during a period of intense political rivalry between papacy, empire, Norman kings, and the Byzantine Empire, forcing him to balance diplomacy, military alliances, and ecclesiastical reform.

Early Life and Education

Nicholas Breakspear was born near St Albans in Hertfordshire to a modest family. Little reliable information survives about his childhood. Medieval chroniclers describe him as poor and lacking advanced early education, prompting him to travel abroad to pursue clerical advancement. He studied canon law in southern France, likely in Arles, before joining the Augustinian Abbey of Saint-Ruf near Avignon.

At Saint-Ruf he rose quickly, becoming prior and later abbot. His strict discipline earned criticism from his monks but attracted papal attention. Pope Eugenius III recognized Breakspear’s administrative talent and diplomatic potential, appointing him Cardinal-Bishop of Albano around 1149.

Missions in Catalonia and Scandinavia

Breakspear’s early diplomatic career included a mission to Catalonia during the Reconquista. Shortly afterward, he was sent as papal legate to Scandinavia, where his achievements were among the most significant of his career.

Arriving in Norway during civil conflict, he reorganized the church, reconciled rival factions, and established Nidaros (modern Trondheim) as a metropolitan archbishopric, giving Norway its first independent ecclesiastical structure. He also extended the jurisdiction of the new province to Iceland, Greenland, and Atlantic islands. Cathedral schools were founded, clerical discipline strengthened, and papal authority firmly established.

In Sweden, Breakspear reorganized diocesan governance and introduced papal taxation known as Peter’s Pence. Although attempts to establish a Swedish archbishopric initially failed due to regional rivalries, he strengthened Rome’s influence across the Nordic church. His success earned him praise as the “apostle of Scandinavia.”

Election as Pope

Returning to Rome in late 1154, Breakspear found the papacy vacant. He was elected pope on 4 December 1154, taking the name Adrian IV. Already a bishop, he required no further consecration. His election was unanimous among the cardinals, though relations with the Roman populace were tense from the beginning.

Rome at the time was dominated by a republican commune hostile to papal authority and influenced by the reformer Arnold of Brescia. Adrian was initially confined to the fortified Leonine City and delayed in performing traditional ceremonial rites.

Restoring Papal Authority in Rome

Adrian acted decisively against the Roman commune. After violence against a cardinal, he placed Rome under interdict, forcing the city’s leadership to expel Arnold of Brescia. Imperial troops later captured Arnold, who was executed in 1155. While papal authority was restored, the republican movement itself survived.

Relations with Emperor Frederick Barbarossa

Adrian inherited a fragile alliance with the newly crowned Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. The Treaty of Constance required imperial assistance in restoring papal control over Rome in exchange for imperial coronation.

Tensions soon emerged over ceremonial protocol and symbolic authority. Disputes during Frederick’s coronation in 1155 revealed deep ideological divisions. While the emperor expected traditional honors, Adrian insisted on papal superiority in imperial investiture. These symbolic conflicts reflected broader struggles over sovereignty.

Although Frederick was crowned emperor, he soon withdrew his forces, leaving Rome unstable and papal security fragile. Mutual distrust continued to grow.

Conflict in Southern Italy and Alliance with Byzantium

Meanwhile, the Norman Kingdom of Sicily under King William I threatened papal territories. Adrian initially allied with rebellious southern Italian nobles and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I, who sought to reclaim former imperial lands.

Despite early success, the alliance collapsed when William decisively defeated both Byzantine and rebel forces. Adrian was forced into negotiations and signed the Treaty of Benevento in 1156. This treaty recognized William as king of Sicily while preserving papal feudal overlordship in name. Though pragmatic, the agreement angered Frederick Barbarossa and permanently damaged imperial-papal relations.

Diplomatic Crisis at Besançon

Relations worsened further in 1157 when papal correspondence described the empire using the term beneficium. Imperial officials interpreted this as meaning “fief,” implying that the emperor held authority from the pope. Though Adrian later clarified the term meant “favor,” the damage was done. The incident inflamed imperial resentment and became a major propaganda weapon against papal authority.

Imperial Expansion and Final Confrontations

By 1158 Frederick asserted sweeping claims over northern Italy at the Diet of Roncaglia. Adrian opposed these moves, threatened excommunication, and supported Lombard cities resisting imperial domination. Before the conflict could escalate further, Adrian died suddenly in 1159.

Relations with England and the Laudabiliter Controversy

Despite long absence from England, Adrian maintained strong ties with English institutions, especially St Albans Abbey, granting extensive privileges and exemptions. He supported King Henry II diplomatically when possible.

The most controversial episode involving England was the alleged papal bull Laudabiliter (1155), which purportedly authorized Henry II to intervene in Ireland. While medieval sources claim Adrian granted Ireland as a papal fief, modern historians debate the document’s authenticity and legal significance. Even if genuine, its practical impact was limited during Adrian’s lifetime.

Governance and Reforms

As pope, Adrian issued important legal decrees. He strengthened church discipline, protected free ecclesiastical elections, confirmed the sacramental status of marriage, expanded papal taxation systems, and reorganized papal finances. He also fortified cities, restored Roman infrastructure, and expanded papal territorial holdings through diplomacy and purchase.

Adrian promoted crusading reform by extending indulgences to financial and logistical supporters, though his call attracted little immediate response.

Personal Views and Leadership Style

Adrian viewed the papacy as a position of heavy responsibility rather than privilege. He frequently described the papal office as burdened with suffering and duty. He believed firmly in papal supremacy, portraying the pope as the head of Christendom, responsible for maintaining unity and order.

Contemporaries described him as eloquent, disciplined, charitable, and administratively capable. While some historians view him as inflexible or confrontational, others emphasize his pragmatism and effectiveness under severe political pressure.

Death and Succession Crisis

Adrian died at Anagni on 1 September 1159, likely from acute illness. His death triggered a disputed papal election that produced a major schism between rival claimants supported by imperial and Sicilian factions. The resulting division lasted nearly two decades and reshaped European church politics.

Historical Legacy

Although his reign was brief, Adrian IV played a critical role in strengthening papal administration, expanding papal territorial authority, and redefining imperial coronation practices. He laid foundations later developed under Pope Innocent III.

Modern historians view Adrian as a transitional figure who governed effectively during a period of extraordinary political instability. Though overshadowed by later medieval popes, he is recognized as one of the most capable pontiffs of the twelfth century and remains historically significant as England’s only pope.

The Catholic Church in England and Wales (Latin: Ecclesia Catholica in Anglia et Cambria; Welsh: Yr Eglwys Gatholig yng Nghymru a Lloegr) forms part of the global Catholic Church and remains in full communion with the Holy See. Its institutional origins date to the sixth century, when Pope Gregory I sent the Benedictine monk Augustine to evangelize the Kingdom of Kent, formally establishing ties with Rome in AD 597.

This unity endured for nearly a millennium until King Henry VIII broke communion with the papacy in 1534. Queen Mary I temporarily restored relations with Rome in 1555, but Elizabeth I’s Religious Settlement of 1559 permanently reasserted England’s separation from Catholic authority, offering little accommodation to Catholic leadership or sympathizers.

For the next two and a half centuries, Catholics—often known as recusants—faced political exclusion, legal penalties, and restrictions on worship. Clergy were forced to train abroad in Catholic Europe, where English seminaries were established for the sons of recusant families. While public Catholic worship remained illegal until the Catholic Relief Act of 1791, embassies in London provided limited sanctuary. Throughout this period, Catholic life reflected social divisions between aristocratic patrons and working-class believers.

By the early twenty-first century, the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales estimated approximately 6.2 million Catholics, making Catholicism the second-largest Christian denomination in the region. Census data reflect steady growth over the past century: Catholics constituted about 4.8% of the population in 1901, roughly 8% by 2001, and nearly 9.6% in surveys conducted after increased migration following the European Union expansion in 2004. The 2021 census recorded a general decline in Christian affiliation overall, with Christians representing 46% of the population. Catholic concentration remains strongest in North West England, particularly Lancashire and Liverpool, reflecting recusant survival and nineteenth-century Irish immigration.

Roman Britain and Early Christianity

Christianity arrived in Roman Britain by the third century, with figures such as Saint Alban recognized as early martyrs. Following the Edict of Milan in 313 and the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, Christianity gained legal protection and official status within the empire. Romano-British bishops participated in continental councils, reflecting early ecclesiastical integration.

After Rome’s withdrawal from Britain and subsequent Germanic invasions, Christianity survived primarily in Brittonic regions. Distinct local traditions emerged—often termed Celtic Christianity—including variations in monastic customs and Easter calculations. Despite these differences, historians agree that British Christianity remained part of Western Christendom.

Anglo-Saxon Conversion

The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons occurred through two primary missionary streams: Irish monastic influence from Iona and Lindisfarne in the north, and the Roman mission led by Augustine of Canterbury in the south. Supported by Queen Bertha of Kent, Augustine established Canterbury as the English ecclesiastical center. Disputes over liturgical customs culminated in the Synod of Whitby (644), aligning English practice more closely with Roman standards.

Benedictine monastic reform further strengthened continental ties. Papal involvement in English church affairs increased, reinforcing ecclesiastical unity with Rome throughout the early medieval period.

Norman and Medieval Church

Following the Norman Conquest, church leadership transitioned to continental clergy such as Lanfranc and Anselm. England became deeply integrated into medieval Christendom, with monasteries, universities, and pilgrimage sites flourishing. Walsingham emerged as a major Marian shrine, while Canterbury became a major pilgrimage destination after the martyrdom of Thomas Becket.

English church leaders played important roles in European politics and theology. Pope Adrian IV became the only English pope, while Cardinal Stephen Langton helped shape the Magna Carta, securing ecclesiastical independence from royal interference.

Tudor Break with Rome

Henry VIII’s break with Rome stemmed primarily from dynastic concerns. Declaring himself Supreme Head of the Church of England, he initiated sweeping legal reforms that severed papal authority. While maintaining traditional Catholic doctrine in many areas, Henry oversaw the dissolution of monasteries between 1536 and 1541, confiscating church lands and wealth. Thousands of religious houses were closed, marking one of the most transformative periods in English religious history.

Under Edward VI, Protestant reforms intensified. Latin liturgy was replaced by the Book of Common Prayer, religious imagery was destroyed, and traditional devotions were abolished. Popular resistance erupted, most notably in the Western Rising of 1549, which was violently suppressed.

Restoration Under Mary I

Mary I sought to reunite England with Rome and restore Catholic worship. While supported by influential Catholic families, her execution of Protestant dissenters severely damaged popular support. Her reign became associated with religious persecution, shaping long-term English distrust of Catholic restoration.

Elizabethan Settlement and Persecution

Elizabeth I reinstated Protestant supremacy and enacted strict penalties against Catholic loyalty to Rome. Initially tolerant of private Catholic worship, her policies hardened after Pope Pius V excommunicated her in 1570. Subsequent legislation criminalized the Mass, penalized recusancy, and outlawed Catholic clergy. Many priests trained abroad and returned covertly, facing execution if discovered.

Despite repression, significant Catholic minorities persisted. By the end of Elizabeth’s reign, perhaps one-fifth of the population remained Catholic. However, public conformity to Anglicanism became widespread.

Stuart Era and Civil War

James I introduced limited toleration, though tensions rose after the Gunpowder Plot. Under Charles I, Catholic influence increased at court, particularly through Queen Henrietta Maria. Religious divisions contributed to the English Civil War, during which Catholics largely supported the monarchy. Parliament’s victory ushered in a strongly Protestant regime.

After the Restoration, Charles II adopted pragmatic tolerance, though public anti-Catholic sentiment remained strong. His brother James II, openly Catholic, attempted to expand religious liberty but provoked widespread fear by promoting Catholics to senior positions. The birth of a Catholic heir led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which replaced James with Protestant monarchs William III and Mary II.

Penal Laws and Emancipation

The eighteenth century marked a low point for English Catholicism. Legal disabilities restricted property ownership, education, voting rights, and public office. Catholic numbers declined sharply, surviving largely through aristocratic patronage and working-class resilience.

Gradual reform began with Catholic Relief Acts in 1778 and 1791, granting limited civil freedoms and allowing public worship. Despite setbacks such as the Gordon Riots, Catholic institutions slowly re-emerged. The Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829 finally granted near-equal civil rights, ending most legal discrimination.

Revival and Irish Immigration

The nineteenth century witnessed Catholic revival, driven by Irish immigration and renewed institutional stability. Large Irish communities reshaped urban Catholic life in cities such as Liverpool, Manchester, and London.

In 1850, Rome restored the Catholic diocesan hierarchy in England, replacing apostolic vicariates with permanent dioceses. Though ecclesiastical titles avoided overlap with Anglican sees, the restoration marked a turning point in Catholic public visibility.

Converts and Cultural Influence

The Oxford Movement produced prominent converts, most notably John Henry Newman. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw a wave of literary and intellectual conversions, including figures such as G. K. Chesterton, Evelyn Waugh, Graham Greene, and Ronald Knox. Cradle Catholics such as J. R. R. Tolkien and Edward Elgar also shaped English cultural life.

High-profile modern converts include Katharine, Duchess of Kent, and former Prime Minister Tony Blair.

Modern Developments

Throughout the twentieth century, Catholic numbers increased alongside Irish assimilation into middle-class society. Clergy numbers peaked in the 1970s before declining amid reduced vocations. Post–Vatican II reforms introduced internal tensions between traditionalist and reform-oriented Catholics.

Ecumenical engagement expanded, including cooperation with Anglican institutions and participation in Churches Together in Britain and Ireland. New structures were created, including Eastern Catholic dioceses and the Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham for former Anglicans.

Social Action and Education

Catholic social teaching inspired extensive charitable work addressing homelessness, migration, and poverty. Organizations such as CAFOD, the Cardinal Hume Centre, and diocesan welfare agencies continue to provide social services nationwide.

As of 2024, over 2,100 Catholic educational institutions operate across England and Wales, representing the largest academy network in the country.

Controversies

The Church has acknowledged past wrongdoing in adoption practices involving unmarried mothers and continues to face scrutiny following reports of historical child abuse. Public inquiries have criticized institutional failures and leadership responses, prompting calls for greater accountability and reform.

Governance

The Catholic Church in England and Wales is organized into five ecclesiastical provinces and twenty-one dioceses. The Catholic Bishops’ Conference coordinates national policy and pastoral strategy. The Archbishop of Westminster serves as conference president and de facto national primate, reflecting continuity with the pre-Reformation English Church tradition.

Westminster Cathedral maintains symbolic continuity by listing the lineage of Catholic archbishops from Augustine of Canterbury to the present day, emphasizing the Church’s historical continuity despite centuries of disruption.

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605—earlier often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason—was a failed attempt by a group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, to assassinate King James VI of Scotland and I of England.

The conspirators planned to destroy the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on Tuesday, 5 November 1605, using a large cache of gunpowder. The explosion was intended to trigger a broader uprising in the Midlands, after which James’s nine-year-old daughter, Princess Elizabeth, would be seized and proclaimed the new monarch. Historians generally link the plot’s emergence to disillusionment among some Catholics as hopes for greater tolerance under James faded. The conspirators included John and Christopher Wright, Robert and Thomas Wintour, Thomas Percy, Guy Fawkes, Robert Keyes, Thomas Bates, John Grant, Ambrose Rookwood, Sir Everard Digby, and Francis Tresham. Fawkes, a soldier with years of experience in the Spanish Netherlands, was put in charge of the explosives.

On 26 October 1605, an anonymous warning letter reached William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, a Catholic member of Parliament. Monteagle immediately showed it to the authorities. On the evening of 4 November, a search of the parliamentary complex uncovered Fawkes in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords, guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder—enough to obliterate the chamber. He was arrested on the spot. As word spread, most conspirators fled London while trying to rally support. Several were cornered at Holbeche House in Staffordshire, where a firefight with the Sheriff of Worcestershire’s men left Catesby and others dead. At trial on 27 January 1606, eight surviving conspirators, including Fawkes, were convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.

Some knowledge of the plot was later alleged to have reached Henry Garnet, the leading Jesuit in England. Garnet was convicted of treason and executed, though historians dispute how much he truly knew. He claimed he learned of the scheme through confession and was therefore bound by the inviolability of the confessional. After the plot’s discovery, the government introduced new anti-Catholic measures, yet many Catholics who were considered loyal remained in positions of influence throughout James’s reign. The plot’s failure was commemorated for generations through sermons, public thanksgiving, and the ringing of church bells—customs that evolved into Britain’s Bonfire Night traditions.

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Background

Religion in England

From the 1530s onward, England’s break with Rome created prolonged religious tension. Under Henry VIII, the English monarchy asserted control over the church, and Catholic practice increasingly came under suspicion. Under Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), the Elizabethan Religious Settlement required officeholders to swear allegiance to the monarch as head of church and state. Refusal brought harsh penalties: recusancy fines, imprisonment, and in some cases execution. Catholicism became increasingly marginal, often surviving most visibly in regions distant from London, while priests continued their ministry in secrecy despite the risk of torture or death.

Succession

Elizabeth died childless in March 1603 without naming an heir. Many Catholics regarded Mary, Queen of Scots—Elizabeth’s Catholic cousin—as the rightful successor, but Mary had been executed in 1587. Even so, Mary’s son James VI of Scotland was quietly positioned as Elizabeth’s successor through negotiations led by Robert Cecil. Competing Catholic hopes centered on Infanta Isabella of Spain or on Arbella Stuart, a cousin of both Elizabeth and James. Yet when Elizabeth died, the transfer of power was smooth: James’s succession was proclaimed and widely accepted, and prominent Catholics publicly pledged support rather than resist.

Early reign of James I

James initially appeared more moderate toward Catholics than Elizabeth had been, favoring conformity and outward obedience rather than widespread executions. Some Catholics hoped the son of Mary, Queen of Scots might even move toward reconciliation with Rome. James also sought peace with Spain, and diplomatic gestures reinforced the sense—at least briefly—that Catholic pressure might ease.

Those hopes soon faltered. After learning that Queen Anne had received a rosary from Pope Clement VIII, James denounced Catholic influence and ordered Jesuit and Catholic priests to leave the country. The government renewed enforcement of recusancy fines and pushed anti-Catholic legislation in Parliament. Meanwhile, James’s efforts to strengthen an Anglo-Scottish union and his promotion of Scottish courtiers provoked political resentment in England, and the administration’s handling of recusancy penalties became another source of bitterness.

Earlier plots

Even before the Gunpowder Plot, other conspiracies revealed the volatility of the moment. In the Bye Plot, priests planned to kidnap James and force concessions. In the Main Plot, nobles sought to replace James with Arbella Stuart and courted Spanish support. These schemes collapsed; several plotters were executed or reprieved. Catholic leaders, alarmed by the plots, worked to distance their community from such actions, and James briefly moderated enforcement in response—though the wider trajectory remained repressive.

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The Plot

Aims

The Gunpowder Plot aimed not only to kill the king but also to eliminate much of England’s political leadership at once: royal relatives, Privy Councillors, senior judges, Protestant nobles, and bishops—many of whom would be present at the State Opening. The conspirators also intended to abduct Princess Elizabeth, who lived at Coombe Abbey near Coventry, and install her as a figurehead ruler under a Catholic regency.

Recruitment and planning

Catesby—well-connected, charismatic, and hardened by earlier rebellion—became the plot’s driving force. In early 1604, he recruited Thomas Wintour and John Wright, and then sent Wintour abroad to seek Spanish backing. In Flanders, Wintour enlisted Guy Fawkes, a committed Catholic soldier. The men returned to England knowing Spanish help was unlikely, but the conspiracy continued.

Thomas Percy, a kinsman and agent of the Earl of Northumberland, soon joined. The core group met in London in May 1604, swore an oath of secrecy, and began positioning themselves close to Parliament. Using the alias “John Johnson”, Fawkes posed as Percy’s servant while overseeing access to a property in Westminster.

When Parliament’s opening was delayed—first by scheduling changes, then by plague—the conspirators gained time. Accounts differ on whether they attempted to dig a tunnel beneath Parliament, but by March 1605 they had secured a lease to an undercroft directly beneath the House of Lords. Over the summer, they transported gunpowder into the chamber and concealed it under firewood and coal. Additional men were recruited to support the planned uprising, provide money, supply horses, and help seize Princess Elizabeth.

The Monteagle letter and exposure

In late October 1605, the anonymous letter warning Lord Monteagle to avoid Parliament set events in motion. Though its authorship remains uncertain, it prompted the authorities to investigate Westminster more closely. James, after reading the letter, focused on its reference to a “terrible blow” and suspected an explosion.

On 4 November, officials inspected the parliamentary buildings and noted a suspicious pile of firewood in the undercroft. They returned later that night for a more thorough search and found Fawkes again—cloaked, booted, and equipped with matches and other materials. He was arrested, and the search uncovered 36 barrels of gunpowder hidden beneath the fuel. Fawkes was taken for questioning in the early hours of 5 November 1605, and the plot was finished.

Overview

Nubia was an early center of complex society, trade, and industry. Between about 2450 and 1450 BCE, the city-state of Kerma became the dominant regional power, controlling the Nile corridor between the First and Fourth Cataracts—an area comparable in scale to Egypt itself. Egyptians later applied the name “Kush” to this region, likely derived from an indigenous ethnonym. Over centuries, Egypt and Nubia alternated between conflict, commerce, and cultural exchange.

During Egypt’s New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), much of Nubia fell under Egyptian control. After Egypt’s authority weakened during the upheavals associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse, Kush re-emerged as an independent kingdom centered at Napata (near modern Karima, Sudan). Kush adopted many Egyptian cultural forms—especially devotion to Amun—and royal intermarriage occurred, but Kushite language, identity, and traditions remained distinct, something Egyptian art and texts often emphasized through depictions of dress, appearance, and transport.

Rule in Egypt and the Shift to Meroë

In the eighth century BCE, King Kashta extended Kushite influence into Upper Egypt, and his daughter Amenirdis was installed as Divine Adoratrice of Amun at Thebes. Kashta’s successor Piye invaded Lower Egypt, founding the Kushite Twenty-fifth Dynasty. For more than a century, Kushite kings ruled Egypt until they were forced out during Assyrian invasions led by Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal in the mid-seventh century BCE. After this rupture with Egypt, the kingdom’s political center shifted south to Meroë, a period during which Greek authors often referred to the region as Aethiopia.

Later History and Decline

From the third century BCE to the third century CE, northern Nubia was contested and at times occupied—first by the Ptolemaic Kingdom and later by Rome. After centuries of Greco-Roman control in the border zone, Kushite rulers regained parts of this territory. Kush remained a significant regional power into late antiquity, but by the fourth century CE it weakened due to a combination of environmental pressures, internal instability, and external attacks—especially by the Noba and the Blemmyes. Around the same time, the Aksumite kingdom exploited the turmoil, capturing Meroë and seizing wealth; rulers such as Ezana adopted titles later associated with “Ethiopia.” Although Aksum’s direct presence in Nubia was likely brief, the disruption contributed to Kush’s collapse and the emergence of successor states including Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia, with Alodia later dominating much of the southern former Meroitic realm.

Long treated as an appendage to Egyptian history, Kush has been re-evaluated through modern archaeology. Discoveries since the late twentieth century highlight a sophisticated civilization with its own language and script, extensive trade networks, advanced craftsmanship (especially archery and metalworking), and comparatively high visibility and influence for women in elite and public life.

Name and Identity

Egyptian sources recorded the name as kꜣš (often rendered “Kush”), a term that could refer both to the region south of the First Cataract and to its people. The name appears in personal names such as Kashta, meaning roughly “(one from) the land of Kush.” In Greco-Roman writing the region is frequently called Aethiopia, while biblical traditions associate “Cush” with a figure in Genesis and later passages.

Historical Development (Selected Phases)

Early foundations:

• Nabta Playa (from c. 7500 BCE) shows early organized settlement and megalithic construction, sometimes interpreted as having astronomical significance.

• The A-Group (c. 4000–2900 BCE) formed early hubs of Nubian society along the river.

Kerma (c. 2500–1500 BCE):
A powerful Nubian polity centered at Kerma expanded northward and became a major rival to Egypt, supported by a dense population and strong regional administration. Nearby Doukki Gel reflects additional cultural influences and long-term occupation.

Egyptian rule in Nubia (c. 1504–1070 BCE):
Egypt annexed Nubia during the New Kingdom, governing it through a Viceroy of Kush. Despite deepening Egyptian cultural influence, rebellions persisted, and Nubia remained strategically and spiritually important, with major ceremonies held at Jebel Barkal.

Napatan kingdom (c. 1070–656 BCE):
After Egypt’s decline, Kush reconstituted as an independent state centered at Napata. Kings such as Alara and later Kashta consolidated authority tied closely to the cult of Amun at Jebel Barkal, setting the stage for the conquest of Egypt and the Twenty-fifth Dynasty.

Meroitic kingdom (from c. 270 BCE into the 4th century CE):
With political gravity shifting south to Meroë, Kush developed a distinctive urban culture and eventually its own writing system. Over time, economic and environmental stresses, coupled with invasions and regional upheaval, contributed to the kingdom’s fragmentation.

Language and Writing

Kush used Egyptian hieroglyphs for official and religious contexts during the Napatan period, largely in court and temple settings. Later, Kush developed the Meroitic script, written in both cursive (for everyday records) and hieroglyphic (for monumental and sacred use). While the script has been deciphered, the Meroitic language remains only partially understood, and scholars continue to debate its linguistic family connections.

Science, Technology, and Culture

Kushite society supported irrigation innovations such as the saqiyah water-lifting device and built large rainwater reservoirs known as hafirs. Meroë became especially noted for iron production, leaving substantial archaeological evidence of metalworking. Research on Nubian remains has also suggested early exposure to antibiotic compounds (notably tetracycline), likely through fermented foods or drink. Kushite architecture is best known for its steep-sided pyramids and temple complexes, blending Egyptian forms with local traditions, and it produced a military reputation—especially for elite archers—that echoes throughout ancient sources.

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt (Dynasty XXV), also known as the Nubian Dynasty, Kushite Dynasty, or Napatan Dynasty after its capital at Napata, marked the beginning of Egypt’s Late Period following the Kushite conquest. Popularly labeled the “Black Pharaohs,” the dynasty has attracted scholarly debate due to the racial and cultural implications of this term.

The rulers of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty originated in the Kingdom of Kush, located in present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt. Although they governed Egypt itself, most Kushite kings regarded Napata as their spiritual homeland. Their rule extended over part or all of Egypt for nearly a century, from approximately 744 to 656 BCE.

Despite their foreign origin, the Kushite pharaohs were deeply Egyptianized. They adopted the Egyptian language and writing system and showed strong devotion to Egypt’s religious traditions, artistic conventions, and literary heritage. Earlier scholarship proposed that the dynasty emerged from Egyptian migrants—particularly priests of Amun—an interpretation still supported by archaeological evidence from the royal cemetery at el-Kurru. Excavations there reveal a surge of Egyptian cultural influence during the Third Intermediate Period that coincided with the political rise of Napata.

By reuniting Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Kush under one authority, the Twenty-fifth Dynasty created Egypt’s largest territorial empire since the New Kingdom. While reaffirming traditional Egyptian religious institutions and artistic forms, the Kushite rulers also introduced distinctive Nubian cultural elements. This era saw the revival of pyramid construction in the Nile Valley for the first time since the Middle Kingdom, with many pyramids built in what is now northern Sudan.

The dynasty’s decline followed repeated conflicts with the Neo-Assyrian Empire. After Assyrian rulers Sargon II and Sennacherib blocked Kushite expansion in the Near East, their successors Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal invaded Egypt and defeated the Kushite rulers. This collapse ushered in the Late Period of Egyptian history. The succeeding Twenty-sixth Dynasty initially ruled as Assyrian vassals and became the last native Egyptian dynasty before the Persian Achaemenid conquest.

Scholars have criticized the label “Black Pharaohs” for implying that earlier dynasties lacked southern connections and for oversimplifying the long-standing genetic and cultural continuity between Nubians and Egyptians.

Early History: Piye

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty emerged from Kush under the leadership of Piye (also known as Piankhi). From Napata, Piye launched a military campaign that brought Egypt under Kushite control. He commemorated his victory on the famous Victory Stele, proclaiming himself pharaoh of all Egypt and emphasizing his divine kingship as “Son of Re” and “Beloved of Amun.”

Piye’s success resulted not from Egyptian collapse alone, but from deliberate Kushite political strategy combined with Theban cooperation. He revived pyramid construction, building the earliest known Kushite royal pyramid at El-Kurru, and expanded the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal with a monumental colonnaded forecourt.

Although Piye attempted to extend Egyptian influence into the Near East, his forces were defeated by Sargon II. Despite being omitted from Manetho’s king list, Piye is widely recognized by modern Egyptologists as the founder of the dynasty.

Shabaka and Shebitku: Chronological Debate

Recent archaeological research has revised the traditional order of succession, indicating that Shebitku ruled before Shabaka. Evidence from royal tomb construction and inscriptions at Karnak demonstrates that Shabaka’s reign followed that of Shebitku rather than preceding it, contradicting earlier classical traditions.

Shebitku

Under the revised chronology, Shebitku consolidated Kushite control over the entire Nile Valley around 712 BCE and moved the political capital to Memphis. He eliminated resistance from rival dynasts and established diplomatic relations with Assyria, even extraditing rebels to demonstrate political cooperation. By the early seventh century BCE, Shebitku was firmly recognized as king of Egypt by foreign powers.

Shabaka

Shabaka strengthened Kushite authority in Egypt and promoted a cultural revival rooted in archaic Egyptian traditions. He restored temples, transferred the capital to Memphis, and reinstituted theocratic kingship by assuming the role of chief priest of Amun. His reign is especially notable for preserving Memphite theology through the inscription of ancient religious texts on the Shabaka Stone.

Taharqa

Taharqa, crowned in Memphis in 690 BCE, presided over the dynasty’s height of prosperity and monumental construction. His reign coincided with abundant Nile floods and agricultural surplus. Taharqa financed extensive temple projects at Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, and elsewhere, and built the largest Kushite pyramid at Nuri.

Taharqa also led military campaigns in the Levant and famously aided Judah during the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem. Although initially successful against Assyrian forces, he was eventually defeated by Esarhaddon in 671 BCE. After briefly regaining Memphis, Taharqa was forced south by renewed Assyrian invasions and died in Nubia in 664 BCE.

Tantamani and the End of the Dynasty

Taharqa’s successor, Tantamani, attempted to restore Kushite control over Egypt. Advancing north from Napata, he regained Thebes and Memphis and defeated Assyrian-backed rulers. However, Ashurbanipal responded with a massive counteroffensive, forcing Tantamani to retreat to Nubia and sacking Thebes in 663 BCE.

Following Tantamani’s defeat, Assyria installed Psamtik I as ruler of Lower Egypt. By 656 BCE, Egypt was fully unified under the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Tantamani was buried at El-Kurru, and Kushite political power permanently withdrew southward, later establishing a new capital at Meroë.

Military Forces

Kushite soldiers of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty appear in Assyrian reliefs depicting the conquest of Egypt. These images show Nubian warriors defending fortified cities and prisoners being escorted by Assyrian troops, often identifiable by the distinctive single-feather headgear associated with Taharqa’s army.

The Shabaka Stone, sometimes referred to as Shabaqo, is an ancient Egyptian artifact engraved with a religious text dating to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. In later centuries, the stone was likely repurposed as a millstone, a use that severely damaged its hieroglyphic inscriptions. This wear was compounded by deliberate acts of defacement, leaving much of the text in poor condition.

Provenance and Historical Background

Originally erected in the late eighth century BCE as a permanent monument at the Great Temple of Ptah in Memphis, the stone was later removed for unknown reasons and transported to Alexandria. From there, it was shipped to England aboard a naval vessel, where it was used as ballast along with other Egyptian antiquities, including a column capital, fragments of a Greco-Roman black basalt capital, quartzite lintel pieces from the reign of Senusret III, and a black granite kneeling statue of Ramesses II.

In 1805, the artifact was donated to the British Museum by George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer, who served as First Lord of the Admiralty and had been a museum trustee since 1794. The stone was first deciphered, translated, and systematically studied in 1901 by American Egyptologist James Henry Breasted. It has remained part of the British Museum’s collection ever since.

Dating and Scholarly Debate

The dedicatory introduction on the stone states that it reproduces the contents of a deteriorated, worm-eaten papyrus discovered by Pharaoh Shabaka in the Great Temple of Ptah. Homer W. Smith argued that the original text dated to the First Dynasty, describing it as the earliest written record of human thought.

Early Egyptologists such as James Henry Breasted, Adolf Erman, Kurt Sethe, and Hermann Junker attributed the composition to the Old Kingdom. This view was supported by the archaic linguistic style—closely resembling the Pyramid Texts—and by political references emphasizing Memphis as Egypt’s first royal capital. Scholars including Henri Frankfort, John Wilson, Miriam Lichtheim, and Erik Iversen likewise endorsed an Old Kingdom origin.

More recent scholarship, however, has shifted toward dating the monument itself to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Friedrich Junge and many later researchers argue that while the text may preserve older traditions, the physical artifact was produced much later. Current academic consensus holds that the stone cannot predate the Nineteenth Dynasty.

William Leo Hansberry (February 25, 1894 – November 3, 1965) was an American scholar, lecturer, and pioneering Afrocentrist. He was the elder brother of real estate broker Carl Augustus Hansberry, the uncle of award-winning playwright Lorraine Hansberry, and the great-granduncle of actress Taye Hansberry.

Life and Career

Hansberry was born in Gloster, Amite County, Mississippi, to Elden Hayes Hansberry and Pauline (Bailey) Hansberry. His father, a professor of agriculture at Alcorn A&M in Lorman, Mississippi, died when Hansberry was just three years old. He and his younger brother Carl were subsequently raised by their stepfather, Elijah Washington.

In 1915, Hansberry enrolled at Atlanta University, where a newly published collection of essays on race from the university’s Sociology Department deeply influenced his thinking. Another formative influence was W. E. B. Du Bois’s The Negro. After attempting to consult the book’s references, Hansberry discovered that Atlanta University’s library lacked adequate research materials. Dissatisfied, he left the institution only two weeks into his sophomore year and sought a better-equipped university open to Black students. He began studying at Harvard University in February 1917 and completed his undergraduate degree there in 1921.

Following graduation, Hansberry taught for one year at Straight College (now Dillard University) in New Orleans. In September 1922, he joined the faculty of Howard University, where he founded the African Civilization Section within the History Department.

Hansberry earned his master’s degree from Harvard in 1932 and pursued additional graduate studies at the University of Chicago, Oxford University, and Cairo University. Despite his extensive expertise, he was unable to complete a doctorate because no institution had faculty qualified to supervise a dissertation in his specialized field of African studies.

At Howard University, Hansberry taught courses on African civilizations and cultures. By the mid-1930s, he had gained international recognition as a leading scholar. Among his students were future African leaders Kwame Nkrumah, who later became Ghana’s first prime minister and president, and Nnamdi Azikiwe, who studied under Hansberry from 1928 to 1929 and later became Nigeria’s first president. In 1961, Azikiwe, then serving as Nigeria’s Governor-General, offered to finance the publication of Hansberry’s major work, The Rise and Decline of the Ethiopian Empire, in recognition of its significance.

Although his classes were widely popular, two senior faculty members accused Hansberry of presenting material without sufficient research support. Facing possible dismissal and the elimination of the African studies program, Hansberry presented extensive documentation to the Board of Trustees. While the program survived, his research funding was cut, and he did not receive tenure until 1938.

Despite conducting vast amounts of research throughout his career, Hansberry remained hesitant to publish his work. Former student and Howard University professor James Williams recalled in 1972 that Hansberry consistently declined publication requests, replying with a smile, “I am not ready yet.”

Hansberry retired from Howard University in June 1959.

Shahid Bolsen explains how the pursuit of the unrealistic goal of “ending racism” becomes a trap—one that leaves oppressed communities waiting on a moral transformation from their oppressors that is unlikely to ever happen.

The term Pelasgians (Ancient Greek: Πελασγοί, Pelasgoí) was used by classical Greek authors to describe either the people who lived in Greece before the arrival of the Greeks or, more broadly, the early indigenous populations of the Aegean region. Over time, “Pelasgian” became a general label for ancient native cultures whose identities were unclear or predated recorded Greek history. Historian Peter Green characterized the word as a convenient catch-all term for early, primitive, and supposedly indigenous peoples of the Greek world.

During the classical era, communities identified as Pelasgian still existed in parts of mainland Greece, Crete, and the Aegean islands. Although Greeks often classified Pelasgian speech as “barbarian,” some ancient writers considered them Greek, or at least closely related. A widespread tradition held that much of Greece had once been Pelasgian territory before undergoing Hellenization, particularly in regions later associated with Ionian and Aeolian Greek speakers.

Etymology

The origin of the name Pelasgoi remains highly uncertain. Scholar Michael Sakellariou documented at least fifteen proposed explanations, noting that many are speculative. One ancient interpretation linked the word to pelargos (“stork”), suggesting migratory behavior, an idea later mocked by Aristophanes in his comedy The Birds. Other scholars connected the name to geographic terms meaning “neighboring land,” “flatlands,” or “sea people,” though none of these theories has achieved consensus.

Ancient Literary Evidence

Classical authors extensively debated the Pelasgians, but no definitive conclusions were reached. While philological analysis advanced during the Victorian period, modern progress on the topic relies primarily on archaeology rather than ancient texts alone.

Pelasgians in Ancient Sources

Ancient writers described the Pelasgians inconsistently, labeling them at times as Greek, semi-Greek, foreign, or pre-Greek. Because no Pelasgian self-recorded accounts survive, knowledge of their identity comes entirely from Greek perspectives. Greek authors often used Pelasgian ancestry to emphasize shared origins among Greeks, while at other times portraying Pelasgians as outsiders to reinforce cultural distinctions. Despite these contradictions, Pelasgians consistently appear in literature as figures tied to Greece’s distant past and the formation of Greek identity.

Poetic Traditions

In Homer’s Iliad, Pelasgians appear on both sides of the Trojan War and are associated with regions such as Thessaly and Dodona. Homer also places Pelasgians among the inhabitants of Crete in the Odyssey. Hesiod connects them to Dodona and traces their ancestry to Pelasgus, a legendary progenitor. Other poets, including Asius, portrayed Pelasgus as an earth-born ancestor, reinforcing the idea of Pelasgian autochthony.

Aeschylus expanded the Pelasgian legacy by depicting a vast Pelasgian kingdom centered on Argos. His play The Suppliants links Pelasgian identity to themes of migration, ancestry, and political legitimacy. Sophocles and Euripides continued this tradition, portraying Pelasgians as integral to early Greek history and occasionally renaming them as Danaans through mythic lawmaking.

Roman poet Ovid also referred to the Greeks of the Trojan War as “Pelasgians,” emphasizing their ancient heritage and mythic continuity.

Historical Accounts

Early historians offered competing interpretations. Hecataeus and Acusilaus traced Pelasgian origins to Thessaly and the Peloponnese. Hellanicus suggested that Pelasgians migrated from Greece to Italy, possibly becoming ancestors of the Etruscans. Herodotus acknowledged uncertainty about their language, describing it as non-Greek, yet suggested that early Athenians had Pelasgian roots. He also recorded Pelasgian settlements across the Aegean and Asia Minor.

Thucydides viewed the Pelasgians as the dominant population of Greece before the rise of the Hellenes and described how the Greek identity gradually replaced older tribal names. Later historians such as Ephorus portrayed the Pelasgians as militaristic colonizers who spread their culture across Greece.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus concluded that the Pelasgians were originally Greek and traced their migrations across Thessaly, Crete, the Aegean islands, and Italy. He described them as a wandering people who influenced many regions but were eventually displaced by other groups.

Whether it was built by the Pelasgians, the Cretans, or the Egyptians, Mycenae was famously described as “broad-streeted and golden.” It later became the political center of a powerful civilization that dominated much of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands. The term Mycenaean is therefore sometimes used more broadly to describe the later Bronze Age cultures of the entire Aegean world.

Mainland Greece maintained close contact with Crete, and from this interaction a prosperous culture emerged, strongly influenced by Late Minoan traditions. Around 1450 BC, however, the Mycenaeans gained control of Crete. Between approximately 1375 and 1200 BC, they expanded their power into a vast empire stretching westward to Sicily and southern Italy and eastward to Asia Minor and the Levantine coast.

Unlike their Minoan predecessors, the Mycenaeans showed a strong preference for monumental stone sculpture. Among the few surviving examples, the most famous is the relief known as the Lion Gate at Mycenae (circa 1250 BC), which depicts two lions facing one another across a central architectural column.

Note: Ancient sources often use the terms Pelasgians and Minyans—the founders of Cyrene in Libya—interchangeably. Some scholars suggest this may indicate that both groups were, in fact, the same people or closely related populations.

Beyond the citadel walls of Mycenae lay the burial grounds of the city’s earliest rulers and their families, dating to the beginning of the Late Helladic I period (approximately 1650–1550 BC). These tombs were originally enclosed by a low circular stone wall measuring about 28 meters (92 feet) in diameter. Part of this burial enclosure was later overlain by a tholos tomb, now known as the Tomb of Klytemnestra.

Grave Circle B, dating to the 17th and 16th centuries BC, served as a royal cemetery located outside the Late Bronze Age fortification walls of Mycenae in southern Greece. Together with Grave Circle A, this burial complex represents one of the defining features of the earliest phase of Mycenaean civilization.

Most of the shaft graves were originally marked by stone mounds, and four were further distinguished by upright stone stelae. These stelae reached heights of up to two meters (approximately seven feet). Notably, two of them—associated with Graves Alpha and Gamma—were decorated with engraved hunting scenes, offering rare visual insight into elite symbolism and warrior ideology during the formative period of Mycenaean culture.

Note below that this stele obviously depicts a Black man.

 

Now note how the Albinos depict the Greeks.